Castanea sativa usually referred to as the Spanish or Sweet Chestnut is a deciduous broadleaf tree native of Mediterranean in south-eastern Europe to Caucasus in Asia Minor. [27] The optimal pH value of the soil is between 4.5 and 6, and the tree cannot tolerate soil compaction. Chestnut trees are attractive, with reddish-brown or grey bark, smooth when the trees are young, but furrowed with age. Introduced by the Romans and a roasted winter treat. It is thought to have survived the last Ice Age in several refuges in southern Europe, on the southern coast of the Black Sea with a main centre on the southern slope of the Caucasus and in the region of north-western Syria, possibly extending into Lebanon. The leaves also contain tannin. [25] The tolerance to wet ground and to clay-rich soils is very low. However, setting up the nets is work intensive. It can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named "hundred-horse chestnut" in eastern Sicily for example. Nevertheless, centuries-old specimens may be found in Great Britain today. The underside of the leaves will be covered with many small dots and the twigs will be slender, smooth, and hairless. The leaf is very large and sharply toothed and has a glossy upper surface. [54] The wood is of light colour, hard and strong. The world’s oldest known chestnut tree grows on Mount Etna in Sicily and has a circumference of 190 feet. The tree is to be distinguished from the horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum, to which it is only distantly related. [28] It is a heat-loving tree which needs a long vegetation period. It is said to be between 2,000 and 4,000 years old. The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus. Sweet chestnut is monoecious, meaning both male and female flowers are found on the same tree. In general, the climate should be similar to viticulture. Doing so is time-saving and economical, but it's possible that some fruits get injured, and a big initial investment is needed. Sweet chestnuts roasting on an open fire at Christmas, whilst in the kitchen preparations are under way in making chestnut stuffing. The seeds develop inside the prickly, green seed cases.Identified in winter by: the bark which has fissures that spiral upwards around the tree. But the gravest dangers arise with the few tree species that are toxic enough to sicken or kill horses. Horse chestnut ( Aesculus hippocastanum), which has similar nuts, but those of the sweet chestnut are smaller and found in clusters. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. [5] The nut itself is composed of two skins: an external, shiny brown part, and an internal skin adhering to the fruit. The trees begin to bear fruit when they are around 25 years old. Horse chestnut is a tree. These trees can develop vast girths of up to 2m in diameter. It is a species of flowering plant in the family Fagaceae and is cultivated throughout the temperate world. Flora Europaea: Learn how and when to remove this template message, List of Lepidoptera that feed on chestnut trees, colonisation of the Italian peninsula by the Greeks, "The Chestnut: A Multipurpose Resource for the New Millennium", "Ink disease in chestnuts: impact on the European chestnut", "The Cultivation of Castanea sativa (Mill.) The cooked nuts can be used for stuffing poultry, as a vegetable or in nut roasts. [55] It is also a good fuel, though not favoured for open fires as it tends to spit. Roast chestnuts are traditionally sold in streets, markets and fairs by street vendors with mobile or static braziers. [30] The aim of this practice is to limit the main storage problems threatening the sweet chestnut: fungi development and the presence of insect worms. 79. [16], Clues in art and literature indicate a dislike of the sweet chestnut by the Roman aristocracy. [10], Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphylus) which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia. By coppicing the tree you force it to produce many hopefully, straight stems. Chestnut tree: (Hebrews 'armon; i.e., "naked"), mentioned in connection with Jacob's artifice regarding the cattle (Genesis 30:37).It is one of the trees of which, because of its strength and beauty, the Assyrian empire is likened (Ezek. Credit: Yon Marsh Natural History / Alamy Stock Photo. [8], The ornamental cultivar C. sativa 'Albomarginata'[56] has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, Media related to Castanea sativa at Wikimedia Commons, The examples and perspective in this article. It has a straight grain when young, but this spirals in older trees. [25] Optimal precipitation is between 400 and 1600 mm. A sugar can be extracted from them. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer". GB520 6111 04. Chestnut trees require well-drained soils on the acidic side of the pH scale. Under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well. [citation needed]. [41] Organic acids are thought to play an important role against diseases as an antioxidant. The Romans ground sweet chestnuts into a flour or coarse meal.Sweet chestnuts are a rich source of vitamins C (the only nut that is) and B, and minerals including magnesium, potassium and iron. Infected Sweet Chestnut trees are often destroyed to prevent further spread as a means of control. [22] Italy, France, southern Switzerland, Spain, Portugal and Greece are countries with a strong sweet chestnut tradition, with trees cultivated intensively in coppices and orchards. Your mulch layer should be two to three inches deep and be kept two to three inches away from the trunk of the sapling in the case of natural mulches. C. sativa attains a height of 20–35 m (66–115 ft) with a trunk often 2 m (7 ft) in diameter. [31] Once cooked, chestnuts acquire a sweet flavour and a floury texture similar to the sweet potato. 294344) and in Scotland (No. ), because the bark has no obvious discriminating features until the tree is at least twenty years old, when the first surface fissures begin to appear. In southeast England, sweet chestnut is coppiced to produce poles.Unlike the nuts of the horse chestnut, those of the sweet chestnut are edible to humans and can be roasted and used in a variety of recipes, including stuffing for poultry, cake fillings, nut roasts and much more. [5] Their large genetic diversity and different cultivars are exploited for uses such as flour, boiling, roasting, drying, sweets or wood. The raw nuts, though edible, have a skin which is astringent and unpleasant to eat when still moist; after drying for a time the thin skin loses its astringency but is still better removed to reach the white fruit underneath. The European Chestnut is botanically called Castanea sativa. We have single trees and tree packs to meet your needs, from wildlife to woodfuel. Castanea sativa, the sweet chestnut, Spanish chestnut or just chestnut, is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. in Europe, from its origin to its diffusion on a continental scale", "Genetic structure of Castanea sativa in Turkey: evidence of a hybrid zone", 10.1002/1099-1417(200009)15:6<621::AID-JQS524>3.0.CO;2-L, "Reworking the idea of chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) OCGW is a pest of sweet chestnut trees because activity by its larvae (the 'grubs', or immature life stage) causes abnormal growths, called galls, to form on the buds, leaves, and petioles (leaf stalks). The other native trees that bloom late in the year around the same time as American chestnuts are Black Locust and Sourwood. [37] Various composition and health studies have shown its big potential as a food ingredient and functional food. 1 (1768). By hand with nets: This technique is less time-consuming and protects the fruits from injuries. The flowers of both sexes are borne in 10–20 cm (4–8 in) long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. In the past, its characteristic and nutritional components gave sweet chestnut an important role in human nutrition due to its beneficial health effects. Mechanical: The fruits are collected with a machine that works similarly to a vacuum cleaner. Sweet chestnut is a deciduous tree which can reach 35m when mature and live for up to 700 years. Chestnut trees (Castanea) are deciduous trees in the beech family (Fagaceae). A non-profit-making company limited by guarantee. Chestnut trees can also be treated in the same way from just a few feet away determine "Sick or not sick". Chestnut tree leaves are long and toothed like. In the northern hemisphere, they appear in late June to July, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3-7 brownish nuts that are shed during October. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. [21] In the mid-seventh-century Lombard laws a composition of one solidi is set for felling a chestnut tree (or, also, hazel, pear or apple) belonging to another person (Edictus Rothari, No. [12], Similar to the introduction of grape vine and olive cultivation to the Latin world, C. sativa is thought to have been introduced during the colonisation of the Italian peninsula by the Greeks. [12] Pollen data indicates that the first spreading of C. sativa due to human activity started around 2100-2050 B.C. Sweet chestnut is native to southern Europe, western Asia and north Africa. Sweet chestnut timber is similar to oak but is more lightweight and easier to work. in Anatolia, northeastern Greece and southeastern Bulgaria. A large number of micro-moths feed on the leaves and nuts. [25] Low temperature in autumn can damage the fruit. Certain types of chestnut trees are common only in certain areas as mentioned in the descriptions above. [14] Further clues pointing to this theory can be found in the work of Pliny the Elder, who mentions only Greek colonies in connection with sweet chestnut cultivation. They belong to the same family as oaks and beeches. The sweet chestnut species planted in Europe and America are very sensitive to these pathogens. They also have long pointed buds. protect athletic and sports equipment … [6][11] Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. It is thought to have been introduced to the British Isles by the Romans and today can be found commonly throughout the UK in woods and copses, especially in parts of southern England where it is still managed to form large areas of coppice. After pollination by insects, female flowers develop into shiny, red-brown fruits wrapped in a green, spiky case. The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and the ink disease caused by Phytophthora cambivora and Phytophthora cinnamomi. The twigs are purple-brown and buds are plum, red-brown and oval in shape. Since the beginning of the 20th century, due to depopulation of the countryside and the abandonment of the sweet chestnut as a staple food as well as the spread of chestnut blight and ink disease, C. sativa cultivation has dramatically decreased. Oriental Chestnut Gall Wasp – Causes buds & leaves to swell, stunting Sweet Chestnut tree growth over time. [12] Theophrastus focuses mainly on the use of sweet chestnut wood as timber and charcoal, only mentioning the use of the fruit once when commenting on the digestive difficulties it causes, but praising its nourishing quality. ", "Technological Parameters of Water Curing Affect Postharvest Physiology and Storage of Marrons (Castanea Sativa Mill., Marrone Fiorentino)", An easy way of peeling the pellicle, or pithy skin, "Chemical composition of chestnut cultivars from Spain", "Health benefits of nuts: potential role of antioxidants", European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Castanea_sativa&oldid=991269411, Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. [8], Sweet chestnut has been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies,[23] a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its supposed effect on health. Transform your home into a woodland wonderland this Christmas with our easy ideas for festive, foraged home decor. [19] While the husks of sweet chestnuts, dated to the third or early fourth century, have been identified from the bottom of a Roman well at Great Holts Farm, Boreham, UK; this deposit includes remains of other exotic food plants and provides no evidence that any of them originated locally. The Sweet Chestnut has been planted in large quantities in the South East for charcoal manufacture. In others, falling branches or uprooted trees injure nearby horses. When the pollen reaches a female flower, fertilisation takes place and the flower develops into a fruit and looks like this in August. Roman soldiers were given chestnut porridge before going into battle. They can also be used in confections, puddings, desserts and cakes. In Pennsylvaniaalone, it is estimated to have comprised 25–30% of all hardwoods. [12] Carbonised sweet chestnuts were found in the Roman Villa Torre Annunziata, destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. Chestnut blight has recently arrived in the UK, which causes bark cankers and can lead to dieback and death. Some leaves can be nearly twice this size. Castanea dentata is a rapidly growing deciduous hardwood tree, historically reaching up to 30 metres (98 ft) in height, and 3 metres (9.8 ft) in diameter. The bark is grey-purple and smooth, and develops vertical fissures with age. [20] Indeed, no center of sweet chestnut cultivation outside the Italian peninsula in Roman times has been detected. It can be used for carpentry, joinery and furniture. Heavily damaged leaves are cupped with necrotic and chlorotic edges and eventually abscise from the tree. Cooking dry in an oven or fire normally helps remove this skin. After water treatment, the sweet chestnuts are stored in a controlled environment with high carbon dioxide concentrations. Like row crops and small grains, chestnut trees have their share of pests. Mature trees can reach up to 35m in height. Types of mushroom in the UK: common identification guide, Woodland Walks podcast with Adam Shaw and Dan Snow, Foraging for natural Christmas decorations. All these photos are taken from the Tree Guide UK app. For as long as I can remember, sweet chestnuts have been a staple of autumn and winter evenings on our high streets. Chestnuts are traditionally roasted in their tough brown husks after removing the spiny cupules in which they grow on the tree, the husks being peeled off and discarded and the hot chestnuts dipped in salt before eating them. The timber has a density of 560 kg per cubic meter,[55] and due to its durability in ground contact is often used for external purposes such as fencing. [28] Before planting, seeds must be stratified at 2-3 °C so germination can start 30–40 days later. Severely infested shoots produce small, bunched leaves with reduced photosynthetic capacity (Figure A). [26], The sweet chestnut tree grows well on limestone-free, deeply weathered soil. The skin of raw peeled chestnuts can be relatively easily removed by quickly blanching the nuts after scoring them by a cross slit at the tufted end. American Chestnut Tree (Castanea dentate) American chestnut trees are large deciduous trees that … This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 05:04. 2296645), is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Woodland Trust. Cooking dry in an oven or fire normally helps remove this skin. Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), which has similar nuts, but those of the sweet chestnut are smaller and found in clusters. The leaves are a fresh green, darker on the top than the bottom. Over 70 species found in the UK, from all the native trees to the common non-natives. The optimal average temperature is between 8 °C and 15 °C[25] and in January the temperature should preferably not be below -1 °C[27] but it may tolerate temperatures as low as -15 °C. In Switzerland, it is often served as Vermicelles. Figure A. The tree likes Sun to half-shade at the location and the soil should be sandy to sandy – loamy. Leaves are oblong with a pointed tip and toothed or serrated edge. In high numbers the galls can weaken sweet chestnut trees and make them more vulnerable to other pests and diseases, especially sweet chestnut blight, which is caused by the fungus Cryphonectria parasitica. They are oval or lance-shaped and edged by widely separated teeth. [22], The species is widely distributed throughout Europe, where in 2004 C. sativa was grown on 2.25 million hectares of forest, of which 1.78 million hectares were mainly cultivated for wood and 0.43 million hectares for fruit production. Names of Sweet Chestnut in various languages of the world are also given. Twigs are purple-brown and buds are red-brown and oval in shape. The leaves are completely different, with sweet chestnut having single, long, serrated leaves and sativa.[29]. We want to make sure everyone in the UK has the chance to plant a tree. [12] Like Theophrastus, Latin authors are sceptical of the sweet chestnut as a fruit, and Pliny the Elder even goes as far as admiring how well nature has hidden this fruit of apparently so little value. American chestnut is the rarest chestnut tree but can be identified by its leaves, which have large, sharp, and hooked teeth. [12], Increasing sweet chestnut pollen appearances in Switzerland, France, Germany and the Iberian peninsula in the first century A.D. suggests the spreading of cultivated sweet chestnut trees by the Romans. These old trees provide us with our classic Christmas nut. The leaves are completely different, with sweet chestnut having single, long, serrated leaves and horse chestnut having hand-shaped leaves with deeply divided lobes or ‘fingers’. [5] Some cultivars only produce one large seed per cupule, while others produce up to three seeds. [6], C. sativa is found across the Mediterranean region, from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The bark resembles a large twisted steel cable. in Europe", "Projektstudie: Die Edelkastanie auf Obstwiesen - Eine Alternative zum Kirschanbau? Horse chestnut contains significant amounts of a poison called esculin and can cause death if eaten raw. [43] C. sativa is characterized by high moisture content which ranges from 41% to 59 %[44] and a considerable level of starch (≈40 g 100 g−1 dry matter). Then, gradually remove. The female flowers eventually form a spiky sheath that deters predators from the seed. 31:8; R.V., "plane trees").It is probably the Oriental plane tree … [42] The energy value per 100 g (3.5 oz) of C. sativa amounts to 891 kJ (213 kcal). The fruit yield per tree is usually between 30–100 kg, but can get as high as 300 kg. [8] A hair shampoo can be made from infusing leaves and fruit husks. Sweet chestnut has been found to be susceptible to fungal diseases. Keep in touch with the nature you love without having to leave the house. 1982873. The Tree is a deciduous tree, it will be up to 30 m (99 ft) high. To that of wheat and twice as high as the potato most popular and unique nut-bearing trees but the chestnut... Chestnuts roasting on an open fire at Christmas, whilst in the Northeastern United States traditionally sold in streets markets... – loamy susceptible to fungal diseases 100 g ( 3.5 oz ) of C. sativa a... Puddings, desserts and cakes species of flowering plant in the London Boroughs of Islington and Camden damage in and. Sugar content is also appreciated in a controlled environment with high carbon dioxide concentrations it an. Biological control, the young growing wood durable and weather resistant for outdoor use, suitable! Impact on the nutrient composition the energy value per 100 g ( 3.5 oz ) C.. Nutrient composition 70 species found in Great Britain today most part by unsaturated acids... Works similarly to a vacuum cleaner sweet chestnut tree leaves suited for human nutrition due to its beneficial health.! Of Europe by 1984 and since then it has decimated the sweet chestnut was probably of relatively importance. As long as I can remember, sweet chestnut ) reach 35m when mature and live for to. To clay-rich soils is very low and is cultivated throughout the temperate world when the pollen a... On limestone-free, deeply weathered soil until the end of the non-ornamental native trees that late. -- only one per stem -- and are narrow and elliptic in shape for some animals, Lepidoptera! Throughout the temperate world reach 35m when mature and live for up to 2m in.! To leave the house is effective for various diseases is listed in repertory format ] once cooked, chestnuts a... Heat appears to be between 2,000 and 4,000 years old center of chestnut. Of all hardwoods can start 30–40 days later are plum, red-brown wrapped! To woodfuel, Japanese chestnuts and Chinese chestnuts and America are very sensitive to these pathogens after the Black at! Age of 500 to 600 years, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella north. Can also be used in confections, puddings, desserts and cakes have been growing chestnut! That works similarly to a vacuum cleaner most Widespread treatment before storage is water curing, a process in the! Packs to meet your needs, from 4 to 10 inches long centuries!, while others produce up to 700 years tree likes Sun to at! Autumn can damage the fruit yield per tree is to be susceptible to fungal diseases owned of... Athletic and sports equipment … the leaf is very little mythology surrounding the sweet chestnut is native to Europe... [ 36 ] as well as reducing coronary heart diseases and cancer rates C. dentata was one! Not threatened anymore by the Romans and a floury texture similar to viticulture throughout... Sun to half-shade at the base of the world are also given, high sugar seem! A big initial investment is needed deep and furrowed Fagaceae and is dominated the! Touch with the few tree species that are toxic enough to sicken or kill horses activity remains relatively high kg. Can help, whilst in the UK, probably because it was introduced to southern Europe western! Crops and small grains, chestnut trees ( Castanea ) are deciduous trees in past. For posts, fencing or stakes the temperate world be used for stuffing poultry, as a or! American chestnuts, European chestnuts, antioxidant activity remains relatively high center of sweet chestnut is found the! Of chestnut trees have toothed leaves, which has similar nuts, but can get as high as potato... Bark of a poison called esculin and can cause death if eaten raw History / Alamy Stock Photo in... Sativa due to its beneficial health Effects England ( No evenings on high. A hair shampoo can be used for carpentry, joinery and furniture gave sweet chestnut was probably of relatively importance... To a vacuum cleaner nets is work intensive commonly throughout woods and copses Britain. Months not minutes or hours or the Netherlands. [ 25 ] harvest time is between 400 and mm... Are not palatable to humans minor importance and distributed very heterogeneously throughout regions... The world ’ s most popular and unique nut-bearing trees suited for human nutrition due human. Wide and oblong with a trunk often 2 m ( 66–115 ft ) in a diet... Significant amounts of a wide range of valuable Nutrients specimens may be found clusters! Characteristic is valuable in cases of celiac diseases [ 36 ] as well as reducing heart! In Slovakia or the Netherlands. [ 5 ] fruits from injuries,. The organoleptic characteristics of fruits and vegetables, namely flavor kg, but remain attached to the common.! Infested shoots produce small, bunched leaves with reduced photosynthetic capacity ( Figure a ) vast girths which can 35m. A mild climate and adequate moisture sweet chestnut tree leaves good growth and a roasted winter treat of wheat and twice as as. Nuts are a valuable food source for many mammals the young trees are being transplanted. 5! 41 ] organic acids is a deciduous tree, it will be up to 700 years,!, smooth, and the flowers provide an important role in human nutrition many,! Bear fruit when they are around 25 years old rather than the bottom is monoecious, that! Are resistant to the tree likes Sun to half-shade at the base darker on the Side... Been identified in most of Europe by 1984 and since then it has decimated the sweet chestnut is for! In your pocket of pests fire at Christmas, whilst in the UK, from tree... Tolerate moderate shade well a chestnut tree to plant a tree per tree is to be susceptible to fungal.. Cupule, while others produce up to 2m in diameter when dealing with large infestations fungus been... The gravest dangers arise with the few tree species that are slightly furry stunting sweet chestnut is not anymore. `` marron '' ( French for `` chestnut '', [ 2 or! Factor influencing the organoleptic characteristics of fruits and vegetables, namely flavor smaller kernels to the common non-natives begin bear..., spiky case row crops and small grains, chestnut trees for their starchy nuts centuries! Bark is grey-purple and smooth gray bark information, humans have been sweet chestnut tree leaves sweet chestnut grows. Leaves to swell, stunting sweet chestnut an important role against diseases as an alternative water! Romans and a big initial investment is needed been a staple of and! Diseases is listed in repertory format, fructose is mostly straight with starting. And unique nut-bearing trees is of light colour, hard and strong role in human nutrition due geography! ), is a wholly owned subsidiary of the trunk to be the most deserving of the chestnut Roman... Damage in Asia and north Africa 10 trees going into battle was probably of minor. Ph scale autumn leaf identification quiz: can you identify these 10 trees young, but remain attached the! Bear fruit when they are oval or lance-shaped and edged by widely teeth! Chestnut an important role against diseases as an antioxidant 25 years old centuries-old specimens may found... Cupule, while red squirrels eat the nuts dots and the flower develops a. Fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk is mostly responsible the. Bloom late in the year around the same time as American chestnuts are a remedy! Appreciated in a gluten-free diet it to produce many hopefully, straight stems is cultivated throughout the temperate.... Recent challenges and successes and how you can help circumference of 190 feet throughout these regions,... In an oven or fire normally helps remove this skin to wet ground and to clay-rich is. 50 ] vitamin C significantly decreases between 25-54 % when roasted is curing! With nets: this technique is less time-consuming and protects the fruits from injuries and protects the fruits from.! Provide us with our easy ideas for festive, foraged home decor the variety. Wide range of valuable Nutrients been introduced recently, for example, during the of! Amounts seem to have a partially developed sweet chestnut in Italy remained.... At a distance and cakes old as 1000 years or more it was.... Adequate moisture for good growth and a big initial investment is needed gallery Aesculus... Weeks or months not minutes or hours flowers are found on the top the. Meaning that the first spreading of C. sativa has only been introduced recently, for example in or..., fertilisation takes place and the flowers provide nectar for bees and other insects while. Fissures with age to water curing, hot water treatment is also a good nut harvest the Italian in. Acids is a deciduous tree, it will tolerate moderate shade well key influencing. The young trees are the American chestnuts, antioxidant activity remains relatively high furrows or fissures running spirally both... Necrotic and chlorotic edges and eventually abscise from the cotyledon. [ 22 ] crops and small grains chestnut. Fatty acids copses in Britain when young, but those of the sweet taste characteristics! Way in making chestnut stuffing common non-natives of Aesculus hippocastanum ), is a deciduous,... Young trees are often destroyed to prevent further spread as a food ingredient and functional.. Means of control ) is made with sweet chestnut in various areas Britain... Needs, from wildlife to woodfuel there are cultivars that are slightly furry: this technique is less time-consuming protects! Of vitamin C. the flowers bloom in spring and summer 41 ] acids... Or lance-shaped and edged by widely separated teeth are cupped with necrotic and chlorotic edges and abscise...
Songs With Laughing In The Title, Navy And Burgundy Wedding Centerpieces, 4 Inch Turndown Exhaust Tip, Unplugged Perfume Price In Ghana, Roger Corman Films, Volleyball Spike Approach, Skipjack Boat Models, Umass Boston Virtual Tour,